Journal Publications

1. Remote tutoring with low-tech means to accelerate learning: Evidence for El Salvador

   Zoido, P., Flores, I., Hevia, F. J., Székely, M., and Castro, E.

   Economics of Education Review, 2024

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   This paper presents the results of an impact evaluation with an experimental design, that estimates the effect of a low-tech low-cost remote tutoring intervention applied during the pandemic for remedial education purposes on girls and boys aged 9-14 years in three departments of El Salvador. Our main contributions are a) the provision of strong experimental evidence that the intervention can improve student math learning in developing countries for closing education gaps; and b) the measurement of student anxiety levels before and after the treatment, which allows verifying whether student-tutor interactions mitigated some of the negative socioemotional effects of student confinement. The program is found to have had a positive and significant effect of 0.24 standard deviations on math learning, which is equivalent to a 33.8 percent acceleration as compared to the control group. However, no significant effects were observed on student anxiety levels, which suggests that the academic gains were not mediated by these types of socioemotional factors. The results provide valuable information for the design of tutor training and for the development of tutoring protocols, among other aspects, for future similar programs.

Working papers

1. Breaking the Gang: A Preventive Approach to Reduce Recruitment in Schools

   Castro, E., Coy, F., Schmidt-Padilla, C., and Sviatschi, M. M.

   Reject and Resubmit at Quarterly Journal of Economics
2. Violence Reduction, Firms, and Local Labor Markets: Evidence from a Ceasefire

   Castro, E.

   Under review

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   While violence and under-development often coexist, the economic consequences of reduced violence for local labor markets remain poorly understood. I study El Salvador’s 2012 gang truce, which coincided with a sharp 60% drop in homicides, to examine how homicide declines relate to employment and firm outcomes. Using administrative data on firms and homicides, I document that a one-standard-deviation decline in homicides is associated with an 8.4 percent increase in employment and a 4.6 percent increase in the number of firms within a year. The pattern of results is most consistent with stronger local demand, reflected in fewer firm exits, rising wages, and stronger responses in non-tradable sectors, with additional supportive evidence from sales and consumer confidence measures.

3. Scaling Teacher Training: Experimental Evidence from a Digital Program in El Salvador

   Castro, E., Bendini, M., Cilliers, J., Dinarte-Diaz, L., Evans, D., and Rovira, C.

   Under review

Works in Progress

1. Social Interactions and Gang Entry: Evidence on Peer Effects and Incentives

   Castro, E.
2. Subjective Beliefs and Migration Decisions: A Large-Scale Survey of Potential Central American Immigrants to the U.S.

   Castro, E., Papageorge, N. W., Strain, M. R., and Green, J.
3. The Monopoly of Peace: Gang Criminality and Political Elections in El Salvador

   Castro, E., and Kotti, R.

   APSA Preprints,

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   Despite the growing body of qualitative evidence suggesting collusion between gangs and political parties in various parts of the world, little has been done to study quantitatively the extent to which criminal organization may affect political elections in such context. Using police data and voting results in El Salvador, we find that homicides in gang-controlled neighborhoods tend to decrease by 24 percent of the mean during electoral seasons. We also estimate that gang control is associated with a 2.75 percentage point increase in electoral participation. These effects are especially significant in the neighborhoods where political parties have a strong voting base. Consistent with the interviews we conducted, this suggests that parties negotiate with gangs to mobilize electoral participation in the areas where they are more likely to receive electoral support and thus increase their chances of winning.